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GLOBAL HYDROGEN TRADE TO MEET THE 1.5°C CLIMATE GOAL PART II TECHNOLOGY REVIEW OF HYDROGEN CARRIERS© IRENA 2022 Unless otherwise stated, material in this publication may be freely used, shared, copied, reproduced, printed and/or stored, provided that appropriate acknowledgement is given of IRENA as the source and copyright holder. Material in this publication that is attributed to third parties may be subject to separate terms of use and restrictions, and appropriate permissions from these third parties may need to be secured before any use of such material. ISBN 978-92-9260-431-8 Citation IRENA 2022, Global hydrogen trade to meet the 1.5°C climate goal Part II – Technology review of hydrogen carriers, International Renewable Energy Agency, Abu Dhabi. Acknowledgements The report was prepared by the IRENA Innovation and Technology Centre IITC led by Dolf Gielen. This report was authored by Herib Blanco, as part of the activities of the Power Sector Transformation team led by Emanuele Taibi under the guidance of Roland Roesch. This report benefited from input and review of the following experts Kevin Rouwenhorst Ammonia Energy Association, Ed Frank Argonne National Laboratory, Umberto Cardella Cryomotive, Aparajit Pandey and Andreas Wagner Energy Transitions Commission, Markus Albuscheit, Andreas Lehmann, Ralf Ott Hydrogenious, Ilkka Hannula International Energy Agency, Emanuele Bianco, Barbara Jinks, Paul Komor, and Emanuele Taibi IRENA, Martin Lambert Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, Cédric Philibert, Rafael d’Amore Domenech Polytechnic University of Madrid. The following experts provided support in validating some of the techno-economic data used in this report Francesco Dolci and Eveline Weidner Joint Research Center of the European Commission, David Franzmann, Heidi Heinrichs, and Jochen Linssen Jülich Research Center, Thomas Hajonides van der Meulen Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research, Rafael Ortiz Cebolla, and Octavian Partenie Vattenfall. The report was edited by Justin French-Brooks. Report available online www.irena.org/publications For questions or to provide feedback publicationsirena.org IRENA is grateful for the support of the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry METI of Japan in producing this publication. Disclaimer This publication and the material herein are provided “as is”. All reasonable precautions have been taken by IRENA to verify the reliability of the material in this publication. However, neither IRENA nor any of its officials, agents, data or other third-party content providers provides a warranty of any kind, either expressed or implied, and they accept no responsibility or liability for any consequence of use of the publication or material herein. The information contained herein does not necessarily represent the views of all Members of IRENA. The mention of specific companies or certain projects or products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by IRENA in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. The designations employed and the presentation of material herein do not imply the expression of any opinion on the part of IRENA concerning the legal status of any region, country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of frontiers or boundaries.GLOBAL HYDROGEN TRADE TO MEET THE 1.5°C CLIMATE GOAL PART II – TECHNOLOGY REVIEW OF HYDROGEN CARRIERS 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABBREVIATIONS 6 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 9 CONTEXT OF THIS REPORT AND WHAT TO EXPECT 13 1 TECHNOLOGY PATHWAYS FOR INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT 16 1.1 Overview of possible technologies for shipping 19 2 AMMONIA 24 2.1 Technology status 26 2.2 Project pipeline 28 2.3 Conversion ammonia synthesis 30 2.4 Shipping 37 2.5 Reconversion cracking 45 3 LIQUID HYDROGEN 50 3.1 Technology status 52 3.2 Project pipeline 54 3.3 Conversion liquefaction 56 3.4 Shipping 67 3.5 Reconversion gasification 77 4 LIQUID ORGANIC HYDROGEN CARRIERS 82 4.1 Technology status 84 4.2 Project pipeline 86 4.3 Conversion hydrogenation 88 4.4 Shipping 94 4.5 Reconversion dehydrogenation 97 5 HYDROGEN PIPELINES 100 5.1 Technology status 102 5.2 Project pipeline 108 5.3 Cost assessment 110 6 COST COMPARISON BETWEEN ALTERNATIVES 114 6.1 Comparing hydrogen carriers for shipping 117 6.2 Comparing hydrogen pathways shipping vs pipelines 124 6.3 Potential technology development to 2050 and uncertainties 128 REFERENCES 134 APPENDIX INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL STANDARDS TO BE CONSIDERED DURING THE DESIGN OF LIQUID HYDROGEN CARRIERS 1544 FIGURES FIGURE 0.1. Most cost-effective hydrogen transport pathway in 2050 as a function of project size and distance 9 FIGURE 0.2. Transport cost breakdown by carrier and stage for 2030 left and evolution towards 2050 right 11 FIGURE 0.3. Scope of this report series in the broader context of IRENA publications 13 FIGURE 1.1. Hydrogen transport cost based on distance and volume 17 FIGURE 1.2. Energy density and specific energy for various fuels and energy storage systems 18 FIGURE 1.3. Processing steps of the hydrogen value chain for each of the hydrogen transport options. 21 FIGURE 2.1. Global trade flows of ammonia in 2019 Mt 26 FIGURE 2.2. Ports with loading and unloading facilities for ammonia 27 FIGURE 2.3. Projected green ammonia capacity according to project announcements 29 FIGURE 2.4. Primary resources and conversion steps in various generations of ammonia production technologies 31 FIGURE 2.5. CAPEX for ammonia synthesis and auxiliary equipment 32 FIGURE 2.6. Energy consumption for ammonia synthesis and auxiliary equipment excluding hydrogen production 34 FIGURE 2.7. Levelised cost of ammonia sensitivity to minimum turndown and ramping rate of the synthesis process and air separation unit 36 FIGURE 2.8. Specific investment cost for an ammonia carrier 40 FIGURE 2.9. Specific investment cost of an ammonia storage tank 41 FIGURE 2.10. Efficiency of fuel cells and ICEs as a function of load compared to peak efficiency 43 FIGURE 2.12. Equilibrium concentrations for ammonia, nitrogen and hydrogen for various process conditions 45 FIGURE 2.13. CAPEX for ammonia cracking based on various literature estimates left and as a function of plant size right 47 FIGURE 2.14. Use of the thermal heat from a heater for a 200 tH 2 /d ammonia cracker 48 FIGURE 2.15. Energy consumption for ammonia cracking 49 FIGURE 3.1. Global hydrogen liquefaction capacity growth since the 1960s 53 FIGURE 3.2. Hydrogen value chain in the HySTRA project from Australia to Japan 55 FIGURE 3.3. Minimum liquefaction energy consumption as a function of inlet pressure 57 FIGURE 3.4. Breakdown of exergy losses for a Claude cycle with mixed refrigerant pre-cooling 58 FIGURE 3.5. Energy consumption for operating plants, conceptual designs and ideal cycles for hydrogen liquefaction 59 FIGURE 3.6. Specific energy consumption for liquefaction as a function of plant capacity 60 FIGURE 3.7. Specific energy consumption for liquefaction as a function of plant load 61 FIGURE 3.8. Specific CAPEX for hydrogen liquefaction as a function of plant capacity 62 FIGURE 3.11. CAPEX breakdown for a 3 x 200 t/d hydrogen liquefaction facility 67 FIGURE 3.13. Specific CAPEX of liquid hydrogen storage and uncertainty from literature 74 FIGURE 3.14. Specific investment cost for a liquid hydrogen carrier as a function of ship size 76 FIGURE 3.15. Specific investment cost of liquid hydrogen regasification 78 FIGURE 3.16. Cost breakdown for a 150 t/d liquid hydrogen terminal excluding storage0 79 FIGURE 4.1. Main steps and conditions of the hydrogen transport with LOHC 84 FIGURE 4.2. Current project pipeline for Hydrogenious 86 FIGURE 4.3. Renewable methanol production cost as a function of hydrogen and CO 2 cost 92 FIGURE 4.4. Specific investment cost for hydrogenation for different LOHC 94 FIGURE 4.5. Investment cost for an LOHC vessel as a function of ship size 96 FIGURE 4.6. Equilibrium conversion for LOHC dehydrogenation as a function of pressure and temperature 98 FIGURE 4.7. Specific investment cost for LOHC dehydrogenation 99GLOBAL HYDROGEN TRADE TO MEET THE 1.5°C CLIMATE GOAL PART II – TECHNOLOGY REVIEW OF HYDROGEN CARRIERS 5 FIGURE 5.1. Total natural gas transmission network length by country. 102 FIGURE 5.2. CO 2 mitigation cost for different combinations of natural gas and hydrogen prices 105 FIGURE 5.3. Levelised cost of hydrogen separation from blended mix for different technologies and conditions 106 FIGURE 5.4. Range of specific costs for new hydrogen pipeline as a function of inner diameter 111 FIGURE 5.5. Capital cost of a hydrogen pipeline left, and total transport cost right by cost component 112 FIGURE 6.1. Transport cost breakdown by hydrogen carrier, scenario and cost component in 2050 117 FIGURE 6.2. Capital cost breakdown by hydrogen carrier, scenario and cost component in 2050 120 FIGURE 6.3. Transport cost by carrier as a function of project size for a fixed distance of 5 000 km in 2050 121 FIGURE 6.4. Transport cost by carrier as a function of distance for a fixed capacity of 1.5 MtH 2 /yr in 2050 122 FIGURE 6.5. Lowest-cost carrier in 2050 for a variable project size and transport distance for an Optimistic scenario solid line and Pessimistic scenario dashed line 123 FIGURE 6.6. Transport cost by pathway as a function of project size for a fixed distance of 5 000 km in 2050 125 FIGURE 6.7. Transport cost by pathway as a function of distance for a fixed project size of 1.5 MtH 2 /yr in 2050 126 FIGURE 6.8. Lowest-cost pathway for a variable project size and transport distance in 2050, Optimistic scenario solid line and Pessimistic scenario dashed line 127 FIGURE 6.9. Lowest-cost carrier in 2050 for a variable project size and transport distance with a cost of capital of 3 128 FIGURE 6.10. Cost pathway from today until 2050 and contributors to cost decrease for ammonia top, LOHC middle and liquid hydrogen bottom 132 TABLES TABLE 1.1. Advantages and disadvantages of each potential hydrogen carrier 22 TABLE 2.1. Volume and weight of possible different components of a 2 500 TEU container ship of 13.5 MW 43 TABLE 3.1. Estimated material inventory for a 50 t/d liquefaction plant 67 TABLE 3.2. Comparison between direct hydrogen use in fuel cells and ICEs 68 TABLE 3.3. Port criteria for liquid hydrogen bunkering adapted from LNG 72 TABLE 3.4. Specifications for a 1 250 m 3 liquid hydrogen carrier 77 TABLE 3.5. Energy consumption for liquid hydrogen regasification 79 TABLE 4.1. Typical conditions for hydrogenation and chemical properties of LOHC 89 TABLE 4.2. Energy consumption for hydrogenation of LOHC 93 TABLE 4.3. Prime mover efficiencies and heat recovery systems for LOHC ships 95 TABLE 4.4. Dimensions for different types of tankers 96 TABLE 4.5. Typical conditions for dehydrogenation and chemical properties of LOHC 97 TABLE 6.1. Cost scaling exponents for hydrogen carriers by step of the value chain 129 TABLE 6.2. Cost scaling exponents for hydrogen carriers by step of the value chain 130 TABLE 6.3. Technology performance from 2030 to 2050 for hydrogen carriers 131 BOXES BOX 2.1. Shipping cost components and types of contract for operation 44 BOX 3.1. Lessons from LNG for hydrogen liquefaction 64 BOX 3.2. Lessons from LNG for liquid hydrogen transport 70 BOX 3.3. Lessons from LNG for cold recovery 806 ABBREVIATIONS AB 1,2-dihydro-1,2-azaborine ABS American Bureau of Shipping AiP Approval in Principle ASU Air separation unit BECCS Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage BT Benzyltoluene CAPEX Capital expenditure CCS Carbon capture and storage CH2 Compressed hydrogen CNG Compressed natural gas CO Carbon monoxide DAC Direct air capture DACCS Direct air capture with carbon capture and storage DBT Dibenzyltoluene DME Dimethyl ether dwt Deadweight tonnage FCEV Fuel cell electric vehicle GHG Greenhouse gas HFO Heavy fuel oil Hx Heat exchanger ICE Internal combustion engine IGC Code International Gas Carrier Code IGF Code International Code of Safety for Ship Using Gases or Other Low-Flashpoint Fuels IMO International Maritime Organization IPCEI Important Projects of Common European Interest ISO International Organization for Standardization H 2 Hydrogen LH2 Liquid hydrogen LHV Lower heating value LNG Liquefied natural gasGLOBAL HYDROGEN TRADE TO MEET THE 1.5°C CLIMATE GOAL PART II – TECHNOLOGY REVIEW OF HYDROGEN CARRIERS 7 LOHC Liquid organic hydrogen carriers LPG Liquefied petroleum gas MGO Maritime gasoil MoU Memorandum of understanding MR Mixed refrigerant NAP Naphthalene NEC N-ethylcarbazole NEDO New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization NH 3 Ammonia NO x Nitrogen oxides N 2 Nitrogen OPEX Operational expenditure PEMFC Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell ppm Parts per million PSA Pressure swing adsorption PV Photovoltaic SMR Steam methane reforming SOFC Solid oxide fuel cell STY Space time yield TCO Total cost of ownership TEU Twenty-foot equivalent unit THF Tetrahydrofuran TRL Technology readiness level TSO Transmission system operator ULCC Ultra-large crude carriers VLCC Very large crude carrier VLSFO Very low sulphur fuel oil Units of measure bbl Barrel cm Centimetre d Day g Gram8 GJ Gigajoule Gt Gigatonne GtCO 2 Gigatonne of carbon dioxide GW Gigawatt hr Hour K Kelvin kcal/mol Kilocalories per mole kg Kilogram km Kilometre kW Kilowatt kW el Kilowatt electrical kWh el Kilowatt hour electrical kWh/L Kilowatt hours per litre kWH 2 Kilowatt of hydrogen m Metre MJ Megajoule MMBtu Million British thermal units MPa Megapascal Mt Megatonne MtCO 2 Megatonne of carbon dioxide MtH 2 /yr Megatonnes of hydrogen per year MW Megawatt MWh Megawatt hour m 3 Cubic metre Nm 3 Normal cubic metre t Tonne t/d Tonnes per day yr YearGLOBAL HYDROGEN TRADE TO MEET THE 1.5°C CLIMATE GOAL PART II – TECHNOLOGY REVIEW OF HYDROGEN CARRIERS 9 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Hydrogen can be transported across long-distances by pipeline or by ship. This report compares the transport of hydrogen by pipeline as compressed gaseous hydrogen with three shipping pathways ammonia, liquid hydrogen and liquid organic hydrogen carriers LOHC. The focus is on hydrogen transport rather than the transport of commodities made using hydrogen e.g. iron, noting that ammonia can be both a hydrogen carrier and directly used as a feedstock or fuel for different applications. Carbon-containing carriers such as methanol or methane are excluded since they would need a sustainable carbon source biogenic or directly from air to be considered renewable, and the cost advantages are not sufficient to compensate for this downside. The scope covers transformation from gaseous hydrogen to a suitable form to allow its transport and storage, its use in the transport step itself, and its reconversion from the carrier back to pure hydrogen if needed. There are two main parameters that define the transport cost the size of the production