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“53981_C000.tex” page i[1] 14/8/2009 1149 “53981_C000.tex” page ii[2] 14/8/2009 1149 “53981_C000.tex” page iii[3] 14/8/2009 1149 “53981_C000.tex” page iv[4] 14/8/2009 1149 CRC Press Taylor Chapter 10 Design and Control Principles of Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehi- cles; Chapter 16 Design of Series Hybrid Drive Train for Off-Road Vehicles, and Appendix Technical Overview of Toyota Prius. Chapter 13 Fundamen- tals of Regenerative Braking has been completely rewritten, based on our new research. In addition, plenty of new materials have been added to the old chapters. All these new contributions to the second edition make it more complete and useful to the reader. This book consists of 16 chapters and one appendix. In Chapter 1, the social and environmental importances of modern transportation is discussed. This mainly includes the air pollution, global warming, and petroleum resource depletion issues associated with the development of modern transportation. In this chapter, the impact of future vehicle technologies on oil supplies is analyzed. The results are helpful for the development strategies of the next generation of vehicles. In addition, the development history of EVs, HEVs, and FCVs is briefly reviewed. In Chapter 2, basic understandings of vehicle performance, power plant characteristics, transmission characteristics, and the equations used to describe vehicle performance are introduced. The main purpose of this chap- ter is to provide the basic knowledge that is necessary for vehicle drive train design. As an improvement to the first edition, material on the brake system and its design and performance has been strengthened in order to provide a more solid base for the hybrid brake system designs in EVs, HEVs, and FCVs. In Chapter 3, major operating characteristics of different heat engines are introduced. As the primary power plant, the engine is the most important subsystem in conventional and hybrid drive train systems. Full understand- ing of the characteristics of engine is necessary for the design and control of conventional as well as HEVs. In Chapter 4, EVs are introduced. This chapter mainly includes the design of the electric propulsion system and its energy storage device, the design of the traction motor and its transmission, methodology of prediction of vehicle performance, and system simulation results. In Chapter 5, the basic concept of hybrid traction is established first. Then, various configurations of HEVs are discussed. These include series hybrid, parallel hybrid, torque-coupling and speed-coupling hybrids, and other configurations. The main operating characteristics of these configurations are also presented. In Chapter 6, several electric power plants are introduced. These include DC, AC, permanent magnet brushless DC, and switched reluctance motor “53981_C000.tex” page xvii[17] 14/8/2009 1149 Preface xvii drives. Their basic structure, operating principles, control and operational characteristics are described from a traction system point of view. In Chapter 7, the design methodology of series hybrid electric drive trains is presented. This chapter focuses on the system-oriented design of the eng- ine and the energy storage, the traction motor, the transmission, the control strategy, and the power converters. A design example is also provided. As an improvement to the first edition, various power converter configurations have been added. In Chapter 8, a design methodology of parallel hybrid electric drive trains is provided. This chapter includes driving patterns and driving mode analysis; control strategy; design of the major components, for example, the engine, the energy storage, and the transmission; and vehicle performance simulation. In addition to the material covered in the first edition, a constrained engine on and off control strategy, fuzzy logic control strategy, and the concept of control optimization based on dynamic programming have been added. In Chapter 9, the operating characteristics, design methodology, and control strategies of a series–parallel hybrid drive train are presented. This is a new chapter in the second edition. In Chapter 10, the design and control principles of the plug-in hybrid vehicle are introduced. This chapter mainly addresses the charge sustaining hybrid drive train with regard to the drive train control strategy, energy storage design, and electric motor design. This is also a new chapter. In Chapter 11, a design methodology of mild hybrid drive trains is introduced with two major configurations of parallel torque coupling and series–parallel, torque–speed coupling. This chapter focuses on operational analysis, control system development, and system simulation. In Chapter 12, different energy storage technologies are introduced, including batteries, ultracapacitors, and flywheels. The discussion focuses on power and energy capacities. The concept of hybrid energy storage is also introduced in this chapter. In Chapter 13, the design and control principles of hybrid brake systems are introduced. Brake safety and recoverable energy are the main concerns. The available braking energy characteristics, with regard to vehicle speed, and the braking power in typical driving cycles are investigated. The brake force distribution on the front and rear wheels is discussed for guaranteeing the vehicle braking performance for safety. Furthermore, this chapter dis- cusses the important issue of distributing the total braking force between the mechanical and the electrical regenerative brakes. Two advanced hybrid brake systems, including their control strategies, are introduced. This chapter has been rewritten based on our recent research. In Chapter 14, different fuel cell systems are described, with a focus on their operating principles and characteristics, various technologies, and their fuels. Specifically, vehicle applications of fuel cells are explained. In Chapter 15, a systematic design of fuel cell hybrid drive trains is intro- duced. First, the concept of fuel cell hybrid vehicles is established. Then, their “53981_C000.tex” page xviii[18] 14/8/2009 1149 xviii Preface operating principles and drive train control systems are analyzed. Lastly, a design methodology is provided, focusing on the system designs of the fuel cell, the electric propulsion system, and the energy storage system. A design example and its corresponding performance simulation results are provided. In Chapter 16, a design methodology of an off-road tracked series hybrid vehicle is developed. The discussion focuses on the motion resistance calcu- lation on soft grounds, traction motor system design, the engine/generator system design, and the peaking power source system design. This is a new chapter for the second edition. A case study appendix has been added to the second edition. This is an overview of the Toyota Prius hybrid system. The purpose is to give the reader a practical example of the architecture, operational modes, control system, among other things, of a commercial hybrid electric drive train. This book is suitable for a graduate or senior-level undergraduate course in advanced vehicles. Depending on the backgrounds of the students in different disciplines such as mechanical or electrical engineering, course instructors have the flexibility of choosing the specialized material to suit their lectures. This text has been used at Texas A Energy Efficient Electric Motors, Marcel Dekker, 2004; Uninterruptible Power Supplies and Active Filters, CRC Press, 2004; Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehi- cles Fundamentals, Theory, and Design, CRC Press, 2004; and Integrated Power Electronic Converters and Digital Control, CRC Press, 2009. Dr. Emadi is also the editor of the Handbook of Automotive Power Electronics and Motor Drives, Marcel Dekker, 2005. Dr. Emadi was the founding general chair of the 1st IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference VPPC’05, which was colocated under his chairmanship with the SAE International Future Transportation Technology Conference. He is currently the chair of the IEEE Vehicle Power and Propul- sion Steering Committee, chair of the Technical Committee on Transportation Power Electronics of the IEEE Power Electronics Society, and Chair of the Power Electronics Technical Committee of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society. He has also served as the Chair of the 2007 IEEE International Future Energy Challenge. Dr. Emadi is the editor North America of the International Journal of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles. He has been the guest editor-in-chief of the Special Issue on Automotive Power Electronics and Motor Drives, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics. He has also been the guest editor of the Special Section on Hybrid Electric and Fuel Cell Vehicles, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology and guest editor of the Special Section on Automotive Electronics and Electrical Drives, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics. He has served as an associate editor of the IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, and IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics. “53981_C001.tex” page 1[1] 14/8/2009 1248 1 Environmental Impact and History of Modern Transportation The development of internal combustion IC engine vehicles, and especially automobiles, is one of the greatest achievements of modern technology. Auto- mobiles have made great contributions to the growth of modern society by satisfying many of the needs for mobility in everyday life. The rapid devel- opment of the automotive industry, unlike that of any other industry, has prompted the progress of human beings from a primitive security to a highly developed industrial one. The automobile industry and the other industries that serve it constitute the backbone of the world’s economy and employ the greatest share of the working population. However, the large number of automobiles in use around the world has caused and continues to cause serious problems for environment and human life. Air pollution, global warming, and the rapid depletion of the Earth’s petroleum resources are now problems of paramount concern. In recent decades, the research and development activities related to trans- portation have emphasized the development of high-efficiency, clean, and safe transportation. Electric vehicles EVs, hybrid electric vehicles HEVs, and fuel cell vehicles have been typically proposed to replace conventional vehicles in the near future. This chapter reviews the problems of air pollution, gas emissions causing global warming, and petroleum resource depletion. It also gives a brief review of the history of EVs, HEVs, and fuel cell technology. 1.1 Air Pollution At present, all vehicles rely on the combustion of hydrocarbon HC fuels to derive the energy necessary for their propulsion. Combustion is a reac- tion between the fuel and the air that releases heat and combustion products. The heat is converted to mechanical power by an engine and the combustion 1 “53981_C001.tex” page 2[2] 14/8/2009 1248 2 Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles products are released to the atmosphere. An HC is a chemical compound with molecules made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Ideally, the combustion of an HC yields only carbon dioxide and water, which do not harm the environment. Indeed, green plants “digest” carbon dioxide by photosynthe- sis. Carbon dioxide is a necessary ingredient in vegetal life. Animals do not suffer from breathing carbon dioxide unless its concentration in air is such that oxygen is almost absent. Actually, the combustion of HC fuel in combustion engines is never ideal. Besides carbon dioxide and water, the combustion products contain a certain amount of nitrogen oxides NO x , carbon monoxides CO, and unburned HCs, all of which are toxic to human health. 1.1.1 Nitrogen Oxides Nitrogen oxides NO x result from the reaction between nitrogen in the air and oxygen. Theoretically, nitrogen is an inert gas. However, the high tempera- tures and pressures in engines create favorable conditions for the formation of nitrogen oxides. Temperature is by far the most important parameter in nitro- gen oxide formation. The most commonly found nitrogen oxide is nitric oxide NO, although small amounts of nitric dioxide NO 2 and traces of nitrous oxide N 2 O are present. Once released into the atmosphere, NO reacts with the oxygen to form NO 2 . This is later decomposed by the Sun’s ultraviolet radiation back to NO and highly reactive oxygen atoms that attack the mem- branes of living cells. Nitrogen dioxide is partly responsible for smog; its brownish color makes smog visible. It also reacts with atmospheric water to form nitric acid HNO 3 , which dilutes in rain. This phenomenon is referred to as “acid rain” and is responsible for the destruction of forests in industri- alized countries. 1 Acid rain also contributes to the degradation of historical monuments made of marble. 1 1.1.2 Carbon Monoxide Carbon monoxide results from the incomplete combustion of HCs due to a lack of oxygen. 1 It is a poison to human beings and animals who inhale/breathe it. Once carbon monoxide reaches the blood cells, it fixes to the hemoglobin in place of oxygen, thus diminishing the quantity of oxy- gen that reaches the organs and reducing the physical and mental abilities of affected living beings. 1 Dizziness is the first symptom of carbon monoxide poisoning, which can rapidly lead to death. Carbon monoxide binds more strongly to hemoglobin than oxygen. The bonds are so strong that normal body functions cannot break them. People intoxicated by carbon monoxide must be treated in pressurized chambers, where the pressure makes it easier to break the carbon monoxide–hemoglobin bonds. “53981_C001.tex” page 3[3] 14/8/2009 1248 Environmental Impact and History of Modern Transportation 3 1.1.3 Unburned HCs Unburned HCs are a result of the incomplete combustion of HCs. 1,2 Depend- ing on their nature, unburned HCs may be harmful to living beings. 2 Some of these unburned HCs may be direct poisons or carcinogenic chemicals such as particulates, benzene, or others. Unburned HCs are also responsible for smog the Sun’s ultraviolet radiations interact with the unburned HCs and NO in the atmosphere to form ozone and other products. Ozone is a molecule formed of three oxygen atoms. It is colorless but very dangerous, and is poisonous because as it attacks the membranes of living cells, causing them to age pre- maturely or die. Toddlers, older people, and asthmatics suffer greatly from exposure to high ozone concentrations. Annually, deaths from high ozone peaks in polluted cities have been reported. 3 1.1.4 Other Pollutants Impurities in fuels result in the emission of pollutants. The major impurity is sulfur mostly found in diesel and jet fuel, but also in gasoline and natu- ral gas. 1 The combustio